Semiotics

Semiotics is the science of studying signs and their meanings. 

The signified (experience) and signifier (spoken or written language) are the codes that help us as individuals to understand signs. The relationship between them is arbitrary and the signs are organised into codes. 

According to Barthes (1957), signs signify on two different levels which are denotation (literal meaning) and connotation (cultural associations).

Saussure believes that a sign's meaning is determined primarily by its relationship to other signs. 

CODES
- codes are found in all forms of cultural practice
- in order to make sense of cultural artefacts we need to learn and understand their codes
- we need to acknowledge that codes rely on a shared knowledge

- they have a number of units to choose from )paradigmatic dimension) which are combined by rules or conventions (syntagmatic dimension).
- all codes convey meaning
- all codes depend upon agreement and a shared cultural background
- codes perform an identifiable social or communicative function


Saussure defined codes to be organised into:
PARADIGM - a set of signs from which one is to be chosen 
SYNTAGM - the message into which the chosen signs are to be combined
All messages involve selection (from a paradigm) and combination (into a syntagm).

PARADIGM
Every time we communicate we select from a paradigm. All the units in a paradigm must have something in common and each of the units in a paradigm must be clearly distinguished from the others. 
Where there is choice there is meaning, and the meaning of what was chosen is determined by the meaning of what was not. 

SYNTAGM
Once a unit has been chosen from a PARADIGM it is combined with other units. This combination is called a syntagm. 

- a sentence is a SYNTAGM of words
- our clothes are a SYNTAGM of paradigmatic choices of hats, gloves, ties ...
- interior décor is a SYNTAGM of choices from the PARADIGM of chairs, wallpaper, carpets etc. 
- an architect makes a SYNTAGM out of doors, windows etc. and their positions

The PARADIGM is the choice and the SYNTAGM is the relationship.

Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a reaction to modern life, technology, new materials and communication. The origins of postmodernism -->

• 1917 - German writer Rudolph Pannwitz, spoke of ‘nihilistic, amoral, postmodern men’ 

• 1964 - Leslie Fielder described a ‘post’ culture, which rejected the elitist values of Modern Culture

Uses of the term 'postmodernism' -->

• after modernism 

• the historical era following the modern 

• contra modernism 

• equivalent to ‘late capitalism’(Jameson) 

• artistic and stylistic eclecticism 

• ‘global village’ phenomena: globalization of cultures, races, images, capital, products

• Postmodernism has an attitude of questioning conventions (especially those set out by Modernism) 

• Postmodern aesthetic = multiplicity of styles & approaches 

• Space for ‘new voices’

• Postmodernism is a reaction to these rules 

• Postmodernism starts as a critique of the International Style – Robert Venturi, Learning from Las Vegas, 1972 – Ideas developed by Charles Jencks, 1977 • Postmodernism's only rule is that there are no rules 

• Postmodernism celebrates what might otherwise be termed kitsch

There is something at the core of Postmodernism, it is a time period. Charles Jencks says modernism died 1972 which is also when Postmodernism began. Symbolised by the destruction of Igeo development in St Louis, 1977. Instead of solving a social problem, it creates one. Modernism is dying because it was bored from the start, revel in the destruction of dream. Postmodernism is about criticising cultural authority and finding ways in which to solve stuff not just following the one path. Postmodernism is looking like a neutral style and is criticism of rules, the only rule is there is no rule. Park Hill Flats in Sheffield added colour and so is no longer a "slum". Roy Lichtenstein creates massive screen prints in which are high end art. High end art and low end art divide is beginning to crumble. Andy Warhol is the ultimate figure of Postmodernism, the opposite of the modernist figure, a self professed to having no talent - anyone can be famous, just a constitution.

J-F Lyotard ‘The Postmodern Condition’ 1979 

• ‘Incredulity towards metanarratives’ 

• Metanarratives = totalising belief systems 

• Result – Crisis in confidence

Postmodernism is the opposite to modernism. It was initially born out of optimism, an aspirational reaction to WW1. It is about progress, celebrating the new and not thinking that new inventions would improve the world. Modernism is function is first and beauty if second, it is a blind obedience that loses something. Whilst Postmodernism is more about form over function, stripping back everything. Postmodernism is the opposite to whatever the characteristics of modernism is. 

- Postmodernism - Modernism attitude of questioning conventions (esp. Modernism) 
- Postmodernism - Modernism  aesthetic = multiplicity of styles & approaches 
- Shift in thought & theory investigating ‘crisis in confidence’ Eg. Lyotard 

Modernism

Modernism -->

1. Terms- ‘modern’, ‘modernity’ 
2. Modernity – Industrialisation, Urbanisation – the City 
3. Modern artists’ response to the city 
4. Psychology and subjective experience 
5. Modern art and photography 
6. Defining ‘modernism’ in art 
7. Modernism in design

If we start to think about subjective experience, the experience of the individual in the modern world, we start to come close to understanding modern art and the experience of modernity. 

Modernism emerges out of the subject response of artists / designers. Modernism can be about embracing modelled techniques, making images that responded to sensations / energies of the modern world, how the modern world helps us understand ourselves and reinstating order and control.

Modernism in design -->
- Anti-historicism -
Doesn't look backwards at historical atheistic, pushing things forwards. Modernism is about creating the new.

No need to look backward to old styles, Ornament is crime - Adolf Loos (1908).

- Truth to materials -

Embrace the new world such as new materials for example concrete, steel, new paint technologies. Modernism tends to celebrate these materials and celebrate what they are. 

Form follows function -

Places functionality before aesthetics as you solve a problem with the design and if solved efficiently the design will have beauty/ an aesthetic. Don’t design something to be pretty.

Quarry Hill Flats, Leeds 1938-78

Attempt at modernism as the utopia hasn't materialised. Modern world hasn't provided equality.

Internationalism -->

Modernist practices aim to create a neutral yet universal language, culture that is available to all. Tend to get styles of making that don't seem to belong to a particular country but could belong to any country.

Harry Beck underground map -->

Form follows function, to understand London at a glance therefore not typographically correct. Doesn't use the exact way the lines run of distances, strips system down to the bare minimum to be legible and easily understood by all.

Aesthetic that doesn't belong to a specific time period

If you try and make your work fit a specific style at a particular moment your work will look out of fashion and old in a matter of years. Modernism looks to strip things down to their essentials which creates timelessness which shows the success of modernism. 

The Bauhaus -->

Re-invented the way art and design is taught in the spirt of internationalism. Interdisciplinary approach with photographers teaching typography etc. Created a diffusion of high art into everyday life, not just principles of craft objects but that would transform into everyday life. 

Russian Revolution 1917 -->

set up worlds first socialist country, workers take control and distribute wealth so all would be equal and no-one would starve. During this time you can't have a style of communicating that uses old styles, need to communication. 

El Lissitsky 1924 -->

Reduces photography down to it essence of light but getting rid of the camera.